English Grammar Rules

Actions happening now or around now, and temporary situations

Present Continuous

Completed actions or states in the past with a finished time reference

Past Simple

Decisions made now, predictions, promises, offers, and future facts

Future Simple (Will)

Simple vs Continuous (Overview)

Choosing simple vs continuous forms for present, past, future

Plans, intentions, and predictions based on evidence: I'm going to visit Paris

Future with Going To

Actions in progress at a specific past time: was/were + verb-ing

Past Continuous

Links past actions to the present: life experience, recent events, unfinished time

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous

Actions that started in the past and continue now, or recently stopped with a present result

Actions completed before another past action/time: had + past participle

Past Perfect

Actions in progress at a specific future time: will be + verb-ing

Future Continuous

Talking about plans/predictions from a past perspective: would, was going to

Future in the Past

Actions in progress before another past event: had been + verb-ing

Past Perfect Continuous

Using present simple and continuous for scheduled future events

Present Tense for Future

Action completed before a specific future time: will have + V3

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous

Actions in progress up to a future point: will have been + verb-ing

Use a/an for general or first mention; the for specific or known items

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Articles

A, an, the - when and how to use them

Articles: A/An/The

A vs An: The Vowel Sound Rule

Choose a/an by sound (an hour, a university), not spelling.

Articles with Jobs and Nationalities

Use a/an for jobs; usually no article with plural nationalities; special cases for groups.

Articles: First Mention vs Second Mention

Use a/an to introduce something; use the when it becomes known in the conversation.

Using 'The' for Shared Knowledge

Use the when both speaker and listener know which thing you mean (context, unique, obvious).

When to Use A/An Before Singular Nouns

Use a/an for non-specific singular countable nouns: first mention, one of many, jobs, and examples.

When no article is used with plural/uncountable nouns and generic references

Zero Article

Articles with Abstract Nouns

Using a/an/the with abstract nouns: the truth, a fear, happiness

When to use 'the' with countries, rivers, mountains, and other geographical names

Articles with Geography

Articles with Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)

Meals usually take no article (have breakfast), but you can use a/the when the meal is specific.

Articles with Media (TV, Radio, Internet)

Learn common article patterns for media: on TV, on the radio, on the internet.

Articles with Musical Instruments

Use 'the' with instruments (play the piano) and usually no article with sports (play tennis).

Articles with Ordinal Numbers (the first, the second)

Use 'the' with ordinal numbers because they point to a specific position in an order.

Articles with Places (at school vs at the school)

Learn the difference between place as purpose (at school) and place as building (at the school).

Articles with Transport (by car, on the bus)

Use zero article with 'by + transport' (by car) and 'the' with some specific transport (on the bus).

Tricky article usage: school vs the school, in hospital, play the piano

Articles: Special Cases

The with Superlatives and Ordinals

Use the with superlatives (the best) and ordinals (the first) in most cases.

When to Use 'The' Before Nouns

Use 'the' when the noun is definite: unique, already known, or identifiable from context.

Articles with Proper Nouns (Countries, Rivers, Hotels)

Learn common patterns for 'the' with proper nouns: rivers, oceans, plural countries, hotels, and organizations.

Generic Meaning: The + Singular vs Zero Article

Compare generic 'the + singular' (the tiger) with zero article generics (tigers).

Prepositions of Time (in/on/at)

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Prepositions

In, on, at, by, for, and more

Using in, on, at for time expressions

Prepositions of Place (in/on/at)

Using in, on, at for locations

Prepositions of Movement (to/into/onto/from)

Showing direction with to, into, onto, from

Fixed prepositions that follow certain verbs and adjectives: interested in, depend on, good at

Dependent Prepositions

Prepositions After Adjectives

Fixed combinations: afraid of, good at, interested in, proud of

Modal Verbs of Permission (can/may)

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Modal Verbs

Can, could, may, might, must, should

Asking for and giving permission with can/may

Modal Verbs of Advice (should/ought to)

Giving advice and recommendations with should/ought to

Modal Verbs of Ability (can/could/be able to)

Expressing ability with can, could, and be able to

Polite requests and offers: Can I...? Could you...? Would you like...? Shall I...?

Requests and Offers

Expressing obligation and necessity with must / have to / don't have to / mustn't

Must vs Have to

Modal Verbs of Probability (may/might/could/must)

Expressing degrees of certainty: may, might, could, must

Modal Verbs for Deduction

Making logical conclusions: must be, can't be, might be, could be

Expressing obligation: must, have to, need to, should, ought to

Modal Verbs: Obligation

Using 'could' for past ability, possibility, polite requests, and suggestions

Uses of Could

Using 'would' for past habits, hypotheticals, polite requests, and more

Uses of Would

General truths and facts: If/When + present, present

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Conditionals

If clauses and conditional sentences

Zero Conditional

Real/likely future results: If + present, will + base verb

First Conditional

Unreal or unlikely present/future results: If + past, would + base

Second Conditional

Provided That and As Long As

Conditional alternatives emphasizing conditions and requirements

Using 'unless' as a negative conditional meaning 'if not'

Unless in Conditionals

Unreal past results: If + past perfect, would have + V3

Third Conditional

Combining different time frames: past condition → present result or present condition → past result

Mixed Conditionals

Focus on the action or receiver, not the doer: be + past participle

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Passive Voice

When the action is more important than the doer

Passive Voice (Basic)

Passive Voice with Modals

Modal + be + past participle: can be done, must be seen, should be finished

Advanced passive forms: perfect/continuous, get-passives, causatives

Passive Voice (Advanced)

Reported Speech (Statements)

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Reported Speech

Telling what someone said

Reporting what someone said with backshift and pronoun/time changes

Reported Questions & Commands

Reporting yes/no and wh- questions, and commands/requests

Different ways to report: say, tell, ask, suggest, admit, promise, warn

Reporting Verbs

Tenses in Reported Speech

Backshift rules: how tenses change in reported speech

Question Words with -ever

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Relative Clauses

Who, which, that, where, when

Whatever, whoever, whenever, wherever, however: any... at all

Relative Clauses (Defining & Non-defining)

Combine sentences by adding information with who/which/that/where/when/whose

Reduced Relative Clauses (Participial)

Shortening defining relative clauses with -ing/-ed or to-infinitive forms

Reason & Result (because/so/therefore)

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Conjunctions

Connecting words and ideas

Connecting cause and effect with because, so, therefore

Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)

Joining equal parts: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Time Conjunctions (before/after/while/until)

Connecting events in time with before, after, while, until, as soon as

Contrast Conjunctions (although/though/even though/however)

Link contrasting ideas using although, though, even though, however

Purpose Clauses (so that / in order to)

Expressing purpose with so that / in order to

After when/if/as soon as/before/after, use present for future meaning

Future Time Clauses

Subordinating Conjunctions

Joining dependent clauses: because, although, if, when, while, unless

Comparatives & Superlatives

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Word Order

Sentence structure and syntax

Comparing two or more things using -er/more and -est/most

Using 'it' as a dummy subject: It's raining, It seems that

It as Subject

Existential 'there' to introduce new information

There Is / There Are

Forming yes/no and wh- questions with correct inversion

Question Word Order

Placing adverbs of manner, frequency, time, and place correctly

Adverb Position

Embedded questions with statement word order: I wonder where she is

Indirect Questions

Choosing between verb + -ing and verb + to + base

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Gerunds & Infinitives

Verb + -ing vs to + verb patterns

Gerunds vs Infinitives

Distinguishing between all, both, each, and every for groups

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Quantifiers

Some, any, much, many, a lot of

All, Both, Each, Every

Individual vs group: each student (one by one) vs every student (all together)

Each vs Every

Quantifiers: much/many/a lot of

Expressing quantity with much, many, and a lot of

Using some, any, and no with countable and uncountable nouns

Quantifiers: some/any/no

Words for inexact amounts: about, roughly, approximately, around

Approximate Quantity

Quantifiers for small amounts with countable and uncountable nouns

Few, Little, Fewer, Less

Abstract and Concrete Nouns

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Nouns

Countable, uncountable, and plural forms

Distinguishing between abstract (love, freedom) and concrete (table, dog) nouns

Countable vs Uncountable Nouns

Understanding count nouns (a book, two books) vs mass nouns (water, information)

Nouns that don't follow regular -s/-es plural rules

Irregular Plural Nouns

Showing ownership with 's and of: John's book, the leg of the table

Possessive Nouns

Singular and Plural Nouns

Regular plural rules: add -s, -es, -ies, and special cases

Nouns for groups that can take singular or plural verbs

Collective Nouns

Two words forming one noun: toothpaste, bus stop, mother-in-law

Compound Nouns

Personal Pronouns Overview

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Pronouns

Personal, reflexive, and relative pronouns

Complete overview of I/me, you, he/him, she/her, it, we/us, they/them

Possessive Pronouns and Determiners

Showing ownership: my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs

Using myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Reflexive Pronouns

Subject and Object Pronouns

I/me, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them - when to use each

Referring to unspecified people/things: someone, anything, nobody, everywhere

Indefinite Pronouns

Using 'each other' and 'one another' for mutual actions

Reciprocal Pronouns

Using who, whom, whose, which, and that to connect clauses

Relative Pronouns

Choosing between -ed (bored) and -ing (boring) adjectives

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Adjectives

Describing words and their order

Adjectives: -ed vs -ing

Comparing equal things: as tall as, not as good as, as much as

As...As Comparisons

Comparing two things: taller, more expensive, better

Comparative Adjectives

Comparing three or more: the tallest, the most expensive, the best

Superlative Adjectives

The correct order for multiple adjectives: opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose

Adjective Order

Adjectives made from two or more words joined by hyphens

Compound Adjectives

The more...the better pattern for parallel changes

Double Comparatives

Gradable and Ungradable Adjectives

Very tired vs absolutely exhausted: which modifiers to use

Adjectives formed from present (-ing) and past (-ed) participles

Participial Adjectives

Giving commands, instructions, and requests: Open the door. Please sit down.

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Verbs

Stative verbs, phrasal verbs, and more

Imperative Mood

Verbs that connect subjects to descriptions: be, seem, become, appear

Linking Verbs

Common expressions with make and do: make a decision, do homework

Make vs Do Collocations

Making subjects and verbs match in number: singular subjects take singular verbs

Subject-Verb Agreement

Causative Verbs: have/get/make/let

Getting others to do things: have something done, make someone do, let someone do

Using 'get' instead of 'be' in passive constructions

Get Passive

Common expressions: have a look, have a rest, get ready, get lost

Have and Get Expressions

Causative structure for services done by others

Have Something Done

Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs where the object must come after the particle: look after the children (not look the children after)

Phrasal verbs where the object can go between verb and particle: turn off the light / turn the light off

Separable Phrasal Verbs

Verbs that describe states and rarely use continuous forms

Stative Verbs

Used to / Would / Be used to

Expressing past habits and states: used to do, would do, be used to doing

What follows verbs: verb + to, verb + -ing, verb + object + to

Verb Patterns

Expressing regrets and hypothetical desires: I wish I had more time

Wish and If Only

Plural -S Endings: /s/, /z/, /ɪz/

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Pronunciation

Stress, endings, connected speech, and intonation

Pronounce plural -s correctly based on the final sound: /s/, /z/, or /ɪz/.

Learn which syllable to stress and how stress changes meaning and clarity.

Syllable Stress (Basics)

Master the most common vowel sound in English: the schwa in unstressed syllables.

The Schwa Sound /ə/

Connected Speech (US): T-Flapping (water → /ˈwɔɾər/)

Learn US-style flapping: /t/ and /d/ can sound like a quick flap /ɾ/ between vowels.

Connected Speech: Linking & Intrusion

Learn how words connect in natural speech (linking consonant→vowel, /r/ linking, intrusion).

Connected Speech: Rhythm & Stress-Timing

Understand stress-timed rhythm: stressed beats stay regular, and unstressed syllables compress.

Connected Speech: Weak Forms (to, for, of, and)

Use weak forms to sound natural: reduce function words in fast, connected speech.

Connected Speech: Word Boundaries (green pen vs green pan)

Learn how word boundaries affect sounds (assimilation, linking) and how to keep clarity.

Minimal Pairs: Vowel Length (ship vs sheep)

Train your ear and mouth with minimal pairs that differ by vowel length/quality.

Past -ED Endings: /t/, /d/, /ɪd/

Pronounce regular past tense -ed correctly: /t/, /d/, or /ɪd/.

Word Stress: Noun–Verb Pairs (REcord vs reCORD)

Learn common stress shifts where nouns stress the first syllable and verbs stress the second.

Connected Speech (UK): T-Glottalization (butter → /ˈbʌʔə/)

Learn T-glottalization: /t/ can be replaced by a glottal stop /ʔ/ in some UK accents.

Connected Speech: Assimilation

Learn assimilation: sounds change to become more like neighboring sounds in fast speech.

Connected Speech: Elision (Sound Deletion)

Learn elision: sounds disappear in fast speech to make pronunciation easier.

Connected Speech: Intrusion (Intrusive /r/ /j/ /w/)

Learn intrusive sounds that appear between vowels in connected speech: /r/, /j/, /w/.

Connected Speech: Prominence & Focus (What do you stress?)

Learn prominence: English highlights meaning by stressing focus words and reducing everything else.

Connected Speech: Yod Coalescence (did you → /dɪdʒu/)

Learn yod coalescence: /t/ + /j/ and /d/ + /j/ often merge to /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ in fast speech.

Intonation in Questions (Rising vs Falling)

Use rising and falling intonation to signal yes/no questions, wh-questions, and attitudes.

Sentence Stress (Content vs Function Words)

Use stress to highlight meaning: stress content words, reduce function words, and shift stress for contrast.

Using apostrophes for possession and contractions

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Punctuation

Commas, apostrophes, and other marks

Apostrophe Rules

When and how to use commas correctly in English

Comma Rules

Using quotation marks for direct speech, titles, and special terms

Quotation Marks

Using three dots to show omission, trailing off, or pause

Ellipsis (...)

Using hyphens (-), en dashes (–), and em dashes (—) correctly

Hyphens and Dashes

Using parentheses () and brackets [] for additional information

Parentheses and Brackets

Advanced punctuation: ; for related clauses, : for lists and explanations

Semicolons and Colons

Intensity and extent: very, quite, extremely, too, enough

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Adverbs

Manner, frequency, degree, and position

Adverbs of Degree

How often: always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never

Adverbs of Frequency

How something is done: quickly, carefully, well, badly

Adverbs of Manner

When things happen: yesterday, today, soon, already, yet, still

Adverbs of Time

Sufficiency and excess: good enough, too hot, enough money, too much

Enough and Too

Expressing attitude: fortunately, obviously, surprisingly, honestly

Comment Adverbs

Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Comparing actions: faster, more quickly, most carefully

Adverbs that emphasize or limit: only, even, just, also

Focusing Adverbs

Intensifiers: so tired, such a mess, so much, such beautiful weather

So and Such

Adverbs that show perspective: personally, financially, politically

Viewpoint Adverbs

Responding to yes/no questions: Yes, I do. No, she isn't. Yes, they have.

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Questions

Wh- questions, yes/no, and question tags

Short Answers

Questions with who, what, where, when, why, which, how

Wh- Questions

Questions answered with yes or no: Do you like coffee? Is she coming?

Yes/No Questions

Repeating questions to show surprise or ask for clarification

Echo Questions

Questions with negative forms for surprise, confirmation, or persuasion

Negative Questions

Short questions at the end of statements: isn't it?, don't you?, can't she?

Question Tags

Subject vs Object Questions

Who saw him? (subject) vs Who did he see? (object)

Demonstratives: this/that/these/those

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Determiners

This, that, these, those, and possessives

Pointing to things near and far: this book, that car, these shoes, those people

Words that show ownership before nouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Possessive Determiners

Introducing existence: There is a book. There are many people.

There Is / There Are

It as empty subject: It's raining. It seems that... It's important to...

Introductory It

Clauses that modify verbs: because, although, when, if, so that

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Clauses

Noun clauses, adverb clauses, and more

Adverb Clauses

Clauses showing contrast: although, even though, despite, in spite of

Concessive Clauses

Clauses that function as nouns: what you said, that she left, whether it works

Noun Clauses

Clauses showing consequence: so...that, such...that

Result Clauses

Shortened clauses using -ing or -ed: Having finished, she left. Shocked by the news, he sat down.

Participle Clauses

Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences

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Sentence Structure

Simple, compound, complex sentences

Understanding sentence types: simple, compound, and complex

Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) Order

Basic English word order: The dog (S) chased (V) the cat (O)

Adding information: and, also, too, as well, moreover, furthermore, in addition

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Linking Words

Connectors for addition, contrast, sequence

Linking Words: Addition

Giving examples: for example, such as, for instance, like

Linking Words: Examples

Ordering ideas: first, then, next, after that, finally, in conclusion

Linking Words: Sequence

Words showing cause and result: due to, as a result, therefore

Cause and Effect Linkers

Showing contrast: however, nevertheless, on the other hand, in contrast

Linking Words: Contrast

Words for concluding and summarizing: in conclusion, to sum up

Summarizing Linkers

American vs British Spelling

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Spelling

Spelling rules and common patterns

Common spelling differences: -ize/-ise, -or/-our, -er/-re

When to double final consonants: stop → stopping, big → bigger

Doubling Consonants

Words that sound the same but have different meanings: their/there/they're

Homophones

The classic spelling rule: i before e except after c

I Before E Rule

Letters we write but don't pronounce: knife, psychology, doubt

Silent Letters

Word beginnings that change meaning: un-, re-, dis-, pre-, mis-

Prefixes

Word endings that change word class: -tion, -ness, -able, -ly, -ment

Suffixes

Emphasizing information: It was John who called. What I need is coffee.

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Emphasis

Cleft sentences, inversion, and stress

Cleft Sentences

Ellipsis (Omitting Words)

Leaving out words to avoid repetition: I can swim and she can too → I can swim and she can

Moving elements to the front for emphasis: This I must see

Fronting for Emphasis

Reversing word order for effect: Never have I seen..., Not only did she...

Inversion for Emphasis

Substitution (do so, one/ones)

Replacing words to avoid repetition: do so, one/ones, that/those

Making sentences negative: don't, doesn't, isn't, can't, haven't

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Negation

Negative forms, double negatives, and neither/nor

Negative Forms

Negative determiners and pronouns: no time, none left, nothing happened

No, None, and Nothing

Near-negative adverbs meaning 'almost not'

Hardly, Scarcely, Barely

Neither...Nor and Either...Or

Negative pairs: neither...nor, either...or, not...either

Expressing that something has stopped: no longer, not anymore

No Longer and No More

Expressing opinions: I agree, I think so too, I'm not sure about that

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Agreement & Responses

So do I, neither do I, agreeing and disagreeing

Agreeing and Disagreeing

Agreeing with statements: So do I, Neither can she, I do too, I don't either

So do I / Neither do I

Tricky Subject-Verb Agreement

Agreement with news, mathematics, and other tricky subjects

Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers

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Numbers & Dates

Cardinal, ordinal, dates, times, and fractions

Counting vs ordering: one/first, two/second, three/third

Expressing dates and times: on Monday, in January, at 3 o'clock

Dates and Times

Expressing parts: half, quarter, third, 0.5, 2.75

Fractions and Decimals

British vs American English

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Vocabulary

Confusing words, British vs American, collocations

Key differences: colour/color, lift/elevator, have got/have

Words often mixed up: borrow/lend, bring/take, say/tell, do/make

Commonly Confused Words

Words that naturally go together: heavy rain, make a mess

Common Collocations

Words that look similar in different languages but have different meanings

False Friends

Understanding particle meanings: up, down, out, off, on

Phrasal Verb Particles

Building words with prefixes and suffixes: happy → happiness → unhappy

Word Formation

Phrases for giving opinions: I think, In my view, I believe

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communication

Expressing Opinion

Correcting and Changing Subject

Phrases for corrections and topic changes: Actually, By the way

Softening statements: I think, perhaps, might, tend to

Hedging Language

Making statements less direct: a bit, sort of, kind of

Softening Language